Gtjkyu

Symbol	Flag	State	Capital	Code	Accession	Population (2017)[8]	Area (km2)	Pop. density (per km²)	MEPs
		Austria	Vienna	AT	199501011 January 1995	7006877286500000000♠8,772,865	7004838550000000000♠83,855	104.62	18
		Belgium	Brussels	BE	19570325Founder	7007113517270000000♠11,351,727	7004305280000000000♠30,528	371.85	21
		Bulgaria	Sofia	BG	200701011 January 2007	7006710185900000000♠7,101,859	7005110994000000000♠110,994	63.98	17
		Croatia	Zagreb	HR	201307011 July 2013	7006415421300000000♠4,154,213	7004565940000000000♠56,594	73.4	11
		Cyprus	Nicosia	CY	200405011 May 2004	7005854802000000000♠854,802	7003925100000000000♠9,251	92.4	6
		Czech Republic	Prague	CZ	200405011 May 2004	7007105788200000000♠10,578,820	7004788660000000000♠78,866	134.14	21
		Denmark	Copenhagen	DK	197301011 January 1973	7006574876900000000♠5,748,769	7004430750000000000♠43,075	133.46	13
		Estonia	Tallinn	EE	200405011 May 2004	7006131563500000000♠1,315,635	7004452270000000000♠45,227	29.09	6
		Finland	Helsinki	FI	199501011 January 1995	7006550329700000000♠5,503,297	7005338424000000000♠338,424	16.26	13
		France	Paris	FR	19570325Founder	7007669890830000000♠66,989,083	7005640679000000000♠640,679	104.56	74
		Germany	Berlin	DE	19570325Founder[q]	7007825216530000000♠82,521,653	7005357021000000000♠357,021	231.14	96
		Greece	Athens	GR	198101011 January 1981	7007107681930000000♠10,768,193	7005131990000000000♠131,990	81.58	21
		Hungary	Budapest	HU	200401011 May 2004	7006979756100000000♠9,797,561	7004930300000000000♠93,030	105.32	21
		Ireland	Dublin	IE	197301011 January 1973	7006478438300000000♠4,784,383	7004702730000000000♠70,273	68.08	11
		Italy	Rome	IT	19570325Founder	7007605894450000000♠60,589,445	7005301338000000000♠301,338	201.07	73
		Latvia	Riga	LV	200405011 May 2004	7006195011600000000♠1,950,116	7004645890000000000♠64,589	30.19	8
		Lithuania	Vilnius	LT	200405011 May 2004	7006284790400000000♠2,847,904	7004652000000000000♠65,200	43.68	11
		Luxembourg	Luxembourg City	LU	19570325Founder	7005590667000000000♠590,667	7003258600000000000♠2,586	228.41	6
		Malta	Valletta	MT	200405011 May 2004	7005460297000000000♠460,297	7002316000000000000♠316	1,456.64	6
		Netherlands	Amsterdam	NL	19570325Founder	7007170815070000000♠17,081,507	7004415430000000000♠41,543	411.18	26
		Poland	Warsaw	PL	200405011 May 2004	7007379729640000000♠37,972,964	7005312685000000000♠312,685	121.44	51
		Portugal	Lisbon	PT	198601011 January 1986	7007103095730000000♠10,309,573	7004923900000000000♠92,390	111.59	21
		Romania	Bucharest	RO	200701011 January 2007	7007196443500000000♠19,644,350	7005238391000000000♠238,391	82.4	32
		Slovakia	Bratislava	SK	200405011 May 2004	7006543534300000000♠5,435,343	7004490350000000000♠49,035	110.85	13
		Slovenia	Ljubljana	SI	200405011 May 2004	7006206589500000000♠2,065,895	7004202730000000000♠20,273	101.9	8
		Spain	Madrid	ES	198601011 January 1986	7007465280240000000♠46,528,024	7005504030000000000♠504,030	92.31	54
		Sweden	Stockholm	SE	199501011 January 1995	7006999515300000000♠9,995,153	7005449964000000000♠449,964	22.21	20
		United Kingdom	London	GB	197301011 January 1973	7007658085730000000♠65,808,573	7005243610000000000♠243,610	270.14	73
Totals:		28 countries				511,522,671	4,475,757	114.28	751

Institutions

The EU operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making.^[141][142]

EU policy is in general promulgated by EU directives, which are then implemented in the domestic legislation of its member states, and EU regulations, which are immediately enforceable in all member states. The EU's seven principal decision making bodies—known as the Institutions of the European Union are:

• the European Council, which sets the general political directions and priorities of the Union by gathering together its member states' heads of state/government (elected chief executives). The conclusions of its summits (held at least quarterly) are adopted by consensus.


• the European Commission, the "Guardian of the Treaties" consists of an executive cabinet of public officials, led by an indirectly elected President. This College of Commissioners manages and directs the Commission's permanent civil service. It turns the consensus objectives of the European Council into legislative proposals.


• the Council of the European Union is an executive meeting of ministers of member states governments' departments, which meets to amend, approve or reject proposed legislation from the Commission. It forms the upper house of the EU's essentially bicameral legislature. Its approval is required for any proposal to enter into law.


• the European Parliament consists of 751 directly elected representatives, forming the EU's lower house of its bicameral legislature. It shares with the Council of the EU equal legislative powers to amend, approve or reject Commission proposals for most areas of EU legislation. Its powers are limited in areas where member states' view sovereignty to be of primary concern (i.e. defence). It elects the Commission's President, must approve the College of Commissioners, and may vote to remove them collectively from office.


• the Court of Justice of the European Union ensures the uniform application of EU law and resolves disputes between EU institutions and member states, and against EU institutions on behalf of individuals.


• the European Central Bank is responsible for monetary stability within member states.


• the European Court of Auditors investigates the proper management of finances within both the EU entities and EU funding provided to its member states. As well as providing oversight and advice, it can refer unresolved issues to the European Court of Justice to arbitrate on any alleged irregularities.

Relation to the Council of Europe

Beyond the EU institutions is the Council of Europe (CoE) which is a wider international organisation with 47 member states whose stated aim is to uphold human rights, democracy and the rule of law in Europe. Its legislative principles are promulgated by the European Convention on Human Rights and its judicial agent is the European Court of Human Rights. These ethical institutions are distinct from the legislative European Union institutions mentioned above, although ECHR decisions are enforcable upon the EU institutions and upon the several judiciaries of sovereign member states of the EU^[143]

The Venice Commission formally The European Commission for Democracy through Law provides advice regarding constitutional matters in order to improve functioning of democratic institutions and the protection of human rights in member states of the Council of Europe

Relations between the EU and its electorate

Apart from the national political structures within member states and the directly elected European Parliament the EU also encourages citizen participation via development projects such as CORDIS (the EU Community Research and Development Information Service) and the ERASMUS (The European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students).

Lobbying at EU level by special interest groups is regulated to try to balance the aspirations of private initiatives with public interest decision-making process^[144]

The Five Presidents (in 2017) were led by:

• the President of the European Commission, Jean-Claude Juncker, indirectly elected by EU citizens via the European Parliament for a 5-year renewable term following European Parliamentary elections, together with,


• the President of the European Council, Donald Tusk, who chairs the gatherings of the EU's 28 national heads of government/state and is elected by them for a 2.5 year once renewable term,


• 
  Eurogroup President, Mário Centeno, who chairs informal meetings of finance ministers from EU member states that use the euro as their currency, and is elected from amongst them, by them, for a 2.5 year renewable term,


• the European Central Bank President, Mario Draghi, elected de facto by the European Council members who represent eurozone states, for an eight-year non-renewable term,


• the European Parliament President, Antonio Tajani, elected from amongst the 751 directly elected Members of the European Parliament, by them, for a 2.5 year renewable term.

By working together, they seek provide a forward policy consideration nucleus for the various European "think-tanks" which discuss various possible future social and economic scenarios that will eventually require ratification by the EU electorate.^[145]

Constitutional nature

Organigram of the political system. The seven organs of the Union are in blue, national / intergovernmental elements in orange.

The classification of the EU in terms of international or constitutional law has been much debated. It began life as an international organisation and gradually developed into a confederation of states. However, since the mid-1960s it has also added several of the key attributes of a federation, such as the direct effect of the law of the general level of government upon the individual^[146] and majority voting in the decision-making process of the general level of government,^[147] without becoming a federation per se. Scholars thus today see it as an intermediate form lying between a confederation and a federation, being an instance of neither political structure.^[148] For this reason, the organisation is termed sui generis (incomparable, one of a kind),^[149] although some argue that this designation is no longer valid.^[150][151]

The organisation has traditionally used the terms "Community" and later "Union" to describe itself. The difficulties of classification involve the difference between national law (where the subjects of the law include natural persons and corporations) and international law (where the subjects include sovereign states and international organisations). They can also be seen in the light of differing European and American constitutional traditions.^[150]
Especially in terms of the European tradition, the term federation is equated with a sovereign federal state in international law; so the EU cannot be called a federation — at least, not without qualification. It is, however, described as being based on a federal model or federal in nature; and so it may be appropriate to consider it a federal union of states, a conceptual structure lying between the confederation of states and the federal state.^[152] The German Constitutional Court refers to the EU as a Staatenverbund, an intermediate structure between the Staatenbund (confederation of states) and the Bundesstaat (federal state), consistent with this concept.^[153]
This may be a long-lived political form. Professor Andrew Moravcsik claims that the EU is unlikely to develop further into a federal state, but instead has reached maturity as a constitutional system.^[154]

Governance

The European Union has seven institutions: the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank and the European Court of Auditors. Competence in scrutinising and amending legislation is shared between the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament, while executive tasks are performed by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The monetary policy of the eurozone is determined by the European Central Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union. The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area.

European Council - Provides impetus and direction -		Council of the European Union - Legislature -		European Parliament - Legislature -		European Commission - Executive -
summit of the Heads of state or government, the President of the European Council and the President of the European Commission. gives the necessary political impetus for the development of the Union and sets its general objectives and priorities does not legislate based in Brussels		composed of twenty-eight national ministers (one per state) informally known as the "Council of Ministers" or just "the Council" acts together with the Parliament as a legislature shares with the Parliament the budgetary power ensures coordination of the broad economic and social policy and sets out guidelines for the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) concludes international agreements based in Brussels		acts together with the Council (of the European Union) as a legislature shares with the Council (of the European Union) the budgetary power exerts the democratic control over the institutions including the European Commission and approves the Commission members based in and plenary sessions in Strasbourg, primarily meets in Brussels		is the executive submits proposals for new legislation to the Parliament and Council (of the European Union) implements policies administers the budget ensures compliance with European law ("guardian of the treaties") negotiates international agreements based in Brussels

	Court of Justice of the European Union - Judiciary -		European Central Bank - Central bank -		European Court of Auditors - Financial auditor -
	ensures the uniform application and interpretation of European law has the power to decide legal disputes between member states, the institutions, businesses and individuals based in Luxembourg		forms together with the national central banks the European System of Central Banks and thereby determines the monetary policy of the eurozone ensures price stability in the eurozone by controlling the money supply based in Frankfurt		checks the proper implementation of the budget based in Luxembourg

European Parliament

The hemicycle of the European Parliament in Strasbourg

The European Parliament forms the other half of the EU's legislature.
The 751 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years on the basis of proportional representation. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into sub-national constituencies where this does not affect the proportional nature of the voting system.^[156] The European Union council, the Council of Ministers, and the Commission fulfilled the duties as the executive for the parliament. ^[20]

The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union pass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under the ordinary legislative procedure. This also applies to the EU budget. The European Commission is accountable to Parliament, requiring its approval to take office, having to report back to it and subject to motions of censure from it. The President of the European Parliament (currently Antonio Tajani) carries out the role of speaker in Parliament and represents it externally. The President and Vice-Presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years.^[157]

European Council

President of the European Council, Donald Tusk

The European Council gives political direction to the EU. It convenes at least four times a year and comprises the President of the European Council (currently Donald Tusk), the President of the European Commission and one representative per member state (either its head of state or head of government). The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (currently Federica Mogherini) also takes part in its meetings. It has been described by some as the Union's "supreme political authority".^[158] It is actively involved in the negotiation of treaty changes and defines the EU's policy agenda and strategies.

The European Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes between member states and the institutions, and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies. It acts externally as a "collective head of state" and ratifies important documents (for example, international agreements and treaties).^[159]

Tasks for the President of the European Council are ensuring the external representation of the EU,^[160] driving consensus and resolving divergences among member states, both during meetings of the European Council and over the periods between them.

The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation independent of the EU based in Strasbourg.

Council of the European Union

The Council of the European Union (also called the "Council"^[161] and the "Council of Ministers", its former title)^[162] forms one half of the EU's legislature. It consists of a government minister from each member state and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed. Notwithstanding its different configurations, it is considered to be one single body.^[163] In addition to its legislative functions, the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy.

In some policies, there are several member states that ally with strategic partners within the Union. Visegrad Group, Benelux, Baltic Assembly, Nordic Council or Craiova Group.

European Commission

Commission President, Jean-Claude Juncker

The European Commission acts as the EU's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day-to-day running of the EU. The Commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. It operates as a cabinet government, with 28 Commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.

One of the 28 is the President of the European Commission (currently Jean-Claude Juncker) appointed by the European Council. After the President, the most prominent Commissioner is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who is ex-officio a Vice-President of the Commission and is also chosen by the European Council.^[164] The other 26 Commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European Union in agreement with the nominated President. The 28 Commissioners as a single body are subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament.

Budget

The EU had an agreed budget of €120.7 billion for the year 2007 and €864.3 billion for the period 2007–2013,^[166] representing 1.10% and 1.05% of the EU-27's GNI forecast for the respective periods. In 1960, the budget of the then European Economic Community was 0.03% of GDP.^[167]

In the 2010 budget of €141.5 billion, the largest single expenditure item is "cohesion & competitiveness" with around 45% of the total budget.^[168] Next comes "agriculture" with approximately 31% of the total.^[168] "Rural development, environment and fisheries" takes up around 11%.^[168] "Administration" accounts for around 6%.^[168] The "EU as a global partner" and "citizenship, freedom, security and justice" bring up the rear with approximately 6% and 1% respectively.^[168]

The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide the Parliament and the Council with "a statement of assurance as to the reliability of the accounts and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions".^[169] The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud actions.^[170] The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission's handling of the budget.

The European Court of Auditors has signed off the European Union accounts every year since 2007^[when?] and, while making it clear that the European Commission has more work to do, has highlighted that most of the errors take place at national level.^[171][172] In their report on 2009 the auditors found that five areas of Union expenditure, agriculture and the cohesion fund, were materially affected by error.^[173] The European Commission estimated in 2009 that the financial effect of irregularities was €1,863 million.^[174]

Competences

EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handed to the European Union. In some areas the EU enjoys exclusive competence. These are areas in which member states have renounced any capacity to enact legislation. In other areas the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate. While both can legislate, member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not. In other policy areas the EU can only co-ordinate, support and supplement member state action but cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws.^[175]

That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area. Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy area.

The distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the Union is divided in the following three categories:

Legal system

The Court of Justice, seated in Luxembourg.

The EU is based on a series of treaties. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties.^[176] These are power-giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation^[r] which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants.^[s] The EU has legal personality, with the right to sign agreements and international treaties.^[177]

Under the principle of supremacy, national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, and thus the laws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional provisions.^[t]

Courts of Justice

The judicial branch of the EU—formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union—consists of two courts: the Court of Justice and the General Court^[178]

Parada Równości, Warsaw. In 2018, the Court of Justice declared same-sex spouses have EU residence rights^[179].

The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions, and cases referred to it by the courts of member states.^[180] The General Court mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU's courts,^[181] and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes between the European Union and its civil service.^[182] Decisions from the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law.^[183]

Fundamental rights

The treaties declare that the EU itself is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities ... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail."^[184]

In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the member states."^[185] The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.^[186]

Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership,^[u] previously, the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as it is neither a state^[v] nor had the competence to accede.^[w] The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to the Convention while the latter formally permits it.

Although, the EU is independent from Council of Europe, they share purpose and ideas especially on rule of law, human rights and democracy. Further European Convention on Human Rights and European Social Charter, the source of law of Charter of Fundamental Rights are created by Council of Europe. The EU also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition. Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership.^[187]

Acts

The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms: regulations, directives, and decisions. Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures,^[x] and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions.^[r] Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result. The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states.^[y] When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may, under certain conditions, have direct effect in national law against member states.

Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular member state. They are most often used in competition law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy.^[188]

Area of freedom, security and justice

Since the creation of the EU in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of freedom, security and justice, initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. To this end, agencies have been established that co-ordinate associated actions: Europol for co-operation of police forces,^[189]Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors,^[190] and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities.^[191] The EU also operates the Schengen Information System^[18] which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities. This co-operation had to particularly be developed with the advent of open borders through the Schengen Agreement and the associated cross border crime.
Furthermore, the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition,^[192] family law,^[193] asylum law,^[194] and criminal justice.^[195] Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties.^[z] In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation.^[aa] By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work-place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination.^[ab]

The borders inside the Schengen Area between Germany and Austria

Europol Headquarters in The Hague, Netherlands

Eurojust Headquarters in The Hague, Netherlands

Seat of Frontex in Warsaw, Poland

Foreign relations

EU Free trade agreements (2017)

  European Union

  Agreement in force

  Pending

  Negotiating

Foreign policy co-operation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the EU's common commercial policy.^[196] Steps for a more wide-ranging co-ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not, however, until 1987 when European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty.^[197]

The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU's own interests and those of the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.^[198] The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq.^[199]

The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment. The High Representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department^[200] that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon.^[201] The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union.^[202]

Donald Tusk and Jean-Claude Juncker with U.S. President Donald Trump, 2017

The EU participates in all G8 and G20 summits. (G20 summit in Hangzhou, 2016)

High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Federica Mogherini with U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, 2018

Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries.^[203]:762 This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".^[204]

The European Union has concluded free trade agreements (FTAs)^[205] and other agreements with a trade component with many countries worldwide and is negotiating with many others.^[206]

Defence

Out of the 28 EU member states, 22 are also members of NATO. Another three NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro and Turkey.

The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes.^[207] 22 EU members are members of NATO^[208] while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality.^[209] The Western European Union, a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, was disbanded in 2010 as its role had been transferred to the EU.^[210]

According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), the United Kingdom spent $61 billion on defence in 2014, placing it fifth in the world, while France spent $53 billion, the sixth largest.^[211] Together, the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of European countries' defence budget and 50 per cent of their military capacity.^[212] Both are officially recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council.

Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO". To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel.^[213]

EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africa to the western Balkans and western Asia.^[214] EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, European Union Satellite Centre and the European Union Military Staff.^[215]Frontex is an agency of the EU established to manage the cooperation between national border guards securing its external borders. It aims to detect and stop illegal immigration, human trafficking and terrorist infiltration. In 2015 the European Commission presented its proposal for a new European Border and Coast Guard Agency having a stronger role and mandate along with national authorities for border management. In an EU consisting of 28 members, substantial security and defence co-operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states.^[216]

Humanitarian aid

The European Union co-funds psychosocial support by the IAHV, Jordan at the Zaatari refugee camp for the Syrian refugees.

If considered collectively, EU member states are the largest contributor of foreign aid in the world.^[217][218]

The European Commission's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department, or "ECHO", provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries. In 2012, its budget amounted to €874 million, 51% of the budget went to Africa and 20% to Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and Pacific, and 20% to the Middle East and Mediterranean.^[219]

Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget (70%) as part of the financial instruments for external action and also by the European Development Fund (30%).^[220] The EU's external action financing is divided into 'geographic' instruments and 'thematic' instruments.^[220] The 'geographic' instruments provide aid through the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI, €16.9 billion, 2007–2013), which must spend 95% of its budget on official development assistance (ODA), and from the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes.^[220] The European Development Fund (EDF, €22.7 bn, 2008–2013) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states, but there is pressure to merge the EDF into the budget-financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0.7% target and allow the European Parliament greater oversight.^[220]

In 2016, the average among EU countries was 0.4% and five had met or exceeded the 0.7% target: Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden and the United Kingdom.^[221]

Regional and global influence of the European Union

Eiffel Tower, Paris.

Because of its ability to shape rules and norms on a global level as well as its attempts to influence neighbouring countries, the EU has been called an emerging or potential superpower by scholars and academics like T. R. Reid,^[222] Andrew Reding,^[223]Andrew Moravcsik,^[224]Mark Leonard,^[225]Jeremy Rifkin,^[226]John McCormick,^[227] and some politicians like Romano Prodi^[228] and Tony Blair,^[229] They believe that the EU is a superpower, or will become one, in the 21st century – while noting that, for them, the concept of "superpower" has changed to one of soft power rather than the hard (military) superpowers of the 20th century.

The EU uses foreign relations instruments like the European Neighbourhood Policy which seeks to tie those countries to the east and south of the European territory of the EU to the Union. These countries, primarily developing countries, include some who seek to one day become either a member state of the European Union, or more closely integrated with the European Union. The EU offers financial assistance to countries within the European Neighbourhood, so long as they meet the strict conditions of government reform, economic reform and other issues surrounding positive transformation. This process is normally underpinned by an Action Plan, as agreed by both Brussels and the target country.

Critics of the concept of the EU as an emerging superpower point to the lack of either a strong European military or of unified EU foreign policy.^[230]

Economy

Gross domestic product (GDP) per inhabitant in purchasing power standards (PPS) in relation to the EU-28 average, by NUTS 2 regions, 2015

The five largest economies in the world according to the IMF by Nominal GDP in 2018^[231]

The European Union has established a single market across the territory of all its members representing 512 million citizens. In 2017, the EU had a combined GDP of $21 trillion international dollars, a 17% share of global gross domestic product by purchasing power parity (PPP).^[232] As a political entity the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization (WTO). EU member states own the estimated second largest after the United States (33%) net wealth in the world, equal to 25% (US$72 trillion) of the $280 trillion global wealth.^[233]

19 member states have joined a monetary union known as the eurozone, which uses the Euro as a single currency. The currency union represents 342 million EU citizens.^[234] The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar.^{[235][236][237]}

Of the top 500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue in 2010, 161 have their headquarters in the EU.^[238] In 2016, unemployment in the EU stood at 8.9%^[239] while inflation was at 2.2%, and the current account balance at −0.9% of GDP. The average annual net earnings in the European Union was around €24,000(US$30,000)^[240] in 2015, which was about 70% of that in the United States.^[241]

There is a significant variance for Nominal GDP per capita within individual EU states. The difference between the richest and poorest regions (276 NUTS-2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) ranged, in 2016, from 14%(Severozapaden, Bulgaria) of the EU28 average(€29,200) to 935%(Inner London - West, UK), or from €4,100 to €207,300.^[242]

World's largest passenger airplane Airbus A380 built by European corporation Airbus SE. Airbus is one of the world's leading aircraft manufacturers.

Automotive manufacturing is one of most enduring industrial activities in the EU, and it accounts for millions of jobs, billions of euros in investment, and represents a large portion of the continent's exports.

Tourism is a major economic activity in the European Union with wide-ranging impact on economic growth and employment.

Port of Antwerp container terminal, second-largest seaport in the European Union.

Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds are supporting the development of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily located in the states of central and southern Europe.^[243][244] Several funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. EU research and technological framework programmes sponsor research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area.^[245]

Internal market

A standardised passport design, displaying the name of the member state, the national arms and the words "European Union" given in their official language(s). (Irish model)

German version of an EU driving licence card with the EU flag on it

The common EU format of vehicle registration plate
(Slovak version pictured)

Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently becoming a single market, and a customs union between its member states. The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people, and services within the EU,^[234] and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally. The non-EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union.^[137] Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.^[246]

Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries.^[247] Until the drive towards economic and monetary union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.

The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.^[248]

The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account for 60–70% of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services.^[249] According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised.

Monetary union

The seat of the European Central Bank in Frankfurt. 19 of the 28 EU member states have adopted the euro as their legal tender.

The Eurozone (dark blue) represents 340 million people. The euro is the second-largest reserve currency in the world.

The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969. In 1992, having negotiated the structure and procedures of a currency union, the member states signed the Maastricht Treaty and were legally bound to fulfil the agreed-on rules including the convergence criteria if they wanted to join the monetary union. The states wanting to participate had first to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism.

In 1999 the currency union started, first as an accounting currency with eleven member states joining. In 2002, the currency was fully put into place, when euro notes and coins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone, which by then consisted of 12 member states. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 19 countries.^[250][ac]

The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are under the control of the European Central Bank (ECB).^[251] The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone, and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability. It is at the centre of the European System of Central Banks, which comprehends all EU national central banks and is controlled by its General Council, consisting of the President of the ECB, who is appointed by the European Council, the Vice-President of the ECB, and the governors of the national central banks of all 28 EU member states.^[252]

The European System of Financial Supervision is an institutional architecture of the EU's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities: the European Banking Authority, the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority. To complement this framework, there is also a European Systemic Risk Board under the responsibility of the ECB. The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU.^[253]

To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union, they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and procedures, especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence, as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a sustainable level.

Energy

In 2006, the EU-27 had a gross inland energy consumption of 1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe).^[254] Around 46% of the energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54% was imported.^[254] In these statistics, nuclear energy is treated as primary energy produced in the EU, regardless of the source of the uranium, of which less than 3% is produced in the EU.^[255]

The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.^[256]

The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market, encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy-rich states in Central Asia^[257] and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing renewable energy commercialisation; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies.^[256]

In 2007, EU countries as a whole imported 82% of their oil, 57% of their natural gas^[258] and 97.48% of their uranium^[255] demands. There is a strong dependence on Russian energy that the EU has been attempting to reduce.^[259]

Infrastructure

The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure within the EU, for example through the Trans-European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Öresund Bridge, the Brenner Base Tunnel and the Strait of Messina Bridge. In 2010 the estimated network covers: 75,200 kilometres (46,700 mi) of roads; 78,000 kilometres (48,000 mi) of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours.^[260][261]

Approximate extent of completed motorway network in Europe as of March 2016

Rail transport in Europe is being synchronised with the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), an initiative to greatly enhance safety, increase efficiency of trains and enhance cross-border interoperability of rail transport in Europe by replacing signalling equipment with digitised mostly wireless versions and by creating a single Europe-wide standard for train control and command systems.

The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network. In the pre-2004 EU members, the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution. After the recent enlargement, the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda.^[262] The Polish road network was upgraded such as the A4 autostrada.^[263]

The Galileo positioning system is another EU infrastructure project. Galileo is a proposed Satellite navigation system, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). The Galileo project was launched partly to reduce the EU's dependency on the US-operated Global Positioning System, but also to give more complete global coverage and allow for greater accuracy, given the aged nature of the GPS system.^[264]

The Öresund Bridge between Denmark and Sweden is part of the Trans-European Networks

Millau Viaduct in France, the tallest bridge in the World

European Space Agency Mission Control at ESOC in Darmstadt, Germany

Spain places second in High-speed rail constructed km in the world after China.

Agriculture

Vineyards in Romania; EU farms are supported by the Common Agricultural Policy, the largest budgetary expenditure.

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one of the long lasting policies of the European Community.^[265] The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilising markets, and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers.^[ae] It was, until recently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until the 1990s, the policy accounted for over 60% of the then European Community's annual budget, and as of 2013^[update] accounts for around 34%.^{[266][not in citation given]}

The policy's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction. These were intervention stores of products bought up by the Community to maintain minimum price levels. To dispose of surplus stores, they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably below Community guaranteed prices, or farmers were offered subsidies (amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices) to export their products outside the Community. This system has been criticised for under-cutting farmers outside Europe, especially those in the developing world.^[267] Supporters of CAP argue that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of living.^[267]

Since the beginning of the 1990s, the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms. Initially, these reforms included the introduction of set-aside in 1988, where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production, milk quotas and, more recently, the 'de-coupling' (or disassociation) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce (by the Fischler reforms in 2004). Agriculture expenditure will move away from subsidy payments linked to specific produce, toward direct payments based on farm size. This is intended to allow the market to dictate production levels.^[265] One of these reforms entailed the modification of the EU's sugar regime, which previously divided the sugar market between member states and certain African-Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU.^[268]

Competition

The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market.^[af] The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for antitrust issues, approving mergers, breaking up cartels, working for economic liberalisation and preventing state aid.^{[269][not in citation given]}

The Competition Commissioner, currently Margrethe Vestager, is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission, notable for the ability to affect the commercial interests of trans-national corporations.^{[270][not in citation given]} For example, in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States (GE and Honeywell) which had already been approved by their national authority.^[271] Another high-profile case against Microsoft, resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over €777 million following nine years of legal action.^[272]

Culture

Cultural co-operation between member states has been a concern of the EU since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty.^[273] Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 seven-year programme,^[273] the European Cultural Month event,^[274] and orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra.^[275] The European Capital of Culture programme selects one or more cities in every year to assist the cultural development of that city.^[276]

Vienna State Opera

Venice Carnival

The European Capital of Culture programme was launched in the summer of 1985 with Athens being the first title-holder.

Berlinale in Germany, largest film festival in the European Union.

Sport

Association football is by far the most popular sport in the European Union by the number of registered players. The other sports with the most participants in clubs are tennis, swimming, athletics, golf, gymnastics, equestrian sports, handball, volleyball and sailing.^[277]

Sport is mainly the responsibility of the member states or other international organisations, rather than of the EU. However, there are some EU policies that have affected sport, such as the free movement of workers, which was at the core of the Bosman ruling that prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European citizenship.^[278]

The Treaty of Lisbon requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on voluntary activity.^[279] This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to objections over the application of free market principles to sport, which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs.^[280] The EU does fund a programme for Israeli, Jordanian, Irish, and British football coaches, as part of the Football 4 Peace project.^[281]

Symbols

Golden bust of Charlemagne with the German reichsadler embossed on the metal and the French fleur-de-lis embroidered on the fabric.

The flag of the Union consists of a circle of 12 golden stars on a blue background. The blue represents the West, while the number and position of the stars represent completeness and unity, respectively.^[282] Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe, the flag was adopted by the European Communities, the predecessors of the present Union, in 1986.

United in Diversity was adopted as the motto of the Union in the year 2000, having been selected from proposals submitted by school pupils.^[283] Since 1985, the flag day of the Union has been Europe Day, on 9 May (the date of the 1950 Schuman declaration). The anthem of the Union is an instrumental version of the prelude to the Ode to Joy, the 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's ninth symphony. The anthem was adopted by European Community leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions.^[284]

Besides naming the continent, the Greek mythological figure of Europa has frequently been employed as a personification of Europe. Known from the myth in which Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull, Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present Union. Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several of the Union's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of Euro banknotes. The bull is, for its part, depicted on all residence permit cards.^[285]

Europa and the bull, depicted by Jean-François de Troy (1716).

Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne (Latin: Carolus Magnus) and later recognised as Pater Europae ("Father of Europe"),^{[286][287][288]} has a symbolic relevance to Europe. The Commission has named one of its central buildings in Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of Aachen has since 1949 awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of European unification.^[289] Since 2008, the organisers of this prize, in conjunction with the European Parliament, have awarded the Charlemagne Youth Prize in recognition of similar efforts by young people.^[290]

In 1997, Polish-born Pope John Paul II canonised Poland's 14th-century monarch Jadwiga as Saint Hedwig, the patron saint of queens and of European unification^{[291][not in citation given]}

Media

Euronews headquarters in Lyon, France

Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights.^[292]:1 Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country's readiness to become part of the EU".^[293]

The vast majority of media in the European Union are national-oriented. However, some EU-wide media focusing on European affairs have emerged since the early 1990s, such as Euronews, EUobserver, EURACTIV or Politico Europe.^[294]ARTE is a public Franco-German TV network that promotes programming in the areas of culture and the arts. 80% of its programming are provided in equal proportion by the two member companies, while the remainder is being provided by the European Economic Interest Grouping ARTE GEIE and the channel's European partners.^[295]

The MEDIA Programme of the European Union intends to support the European popular film and audiovisual industries since 1991. It provides support for the development, promotion and distribution of European works within Europe and beyond.^[296]

Criticism

See also

• Outline of the European Union


• List of country groupings


• List of multilateral free-trade agreements

Notes

References